Current Postgraduate Students

Professor Mike Bentley, Geology BSc. (Hons) 1st Class, (Edinburgh); PhD (Edinburgh)

Contact Professor Mike Bentley (email at m.j.bentley@durham.ac.uk)

Biography

Director of the new Durham University Climate Impacts Research Centre (CIRC).

*** Masters or PhD project on Antarctica. Collaborative with British Antarctic Survey and Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Germany. ***

My research interests focus on Antarctic environmental history, especially the history of the ice sheet in the Antarctic Peninsula-Weddell Sea region. I have a number of current research themes at the moment:

i) Antarctic Ice Sheet History

This work combines glacial geomorphology and cosmogenic isotope surface exposure dating to try and infer past thickness (and extent) variations of ice sheets. I have also produced the first detailed relative sea level curves for the Antarctic Peninsula, which provide independent constraints on former ice sheet thickness. Areas of ongoing study include the Amundsen Sea area (Pine Island Glacier), southern Antarctic Peninsula and Alexander Island, Ellsworth Mountains, Pensacola Mountains, and South Georgia.

In most of these projects I collaborate closely with modellers, especially Richard Hindmarsh, Anne Le Brocq and Alun Hubbard (ice sheet models) and Pippa Whitehouse and Glenn Milne (Glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) modelling). This is a two-way process that allows the field data to be used as constraints for models and for models to direct site selection in future field campaigns. For example in the Ellsworth Mountains we developed an ice sheet model reconstruction of ice at the Last Glacial Maximum, using geomorphological evidence of former ice heights. The GIA modelling allows us to use new relative sea level data and geomorphololgical evidence of ice sheet change to constrain models of ice sheet history. In turn, these models can be used to correct satellite gravimetry measurements of present-day ice sheet mass balance.

ii) Antarctic Sub Glacial Lake Exploration

I am part of the Lake Ellsworth Consortium. www.ellsworth.org.uk This is a NERC-funded consortium that will drill into subglacial Lake Ellsworth in 2012-13. We will retrieve water and sediment samples with the aim to study life in extreme environments and deciphering long-term climate change and ice sheet behaviour. I am leading the phase of the project that will analyse sediement cores from the lake bed.

iii) Antarctic Ice Shelf History

With colleagues from British Antarctic Survey and Edinburgh University I completed a project on Antarctic Peninsula ice shelf history. We worked on a series of epishelf lakes along the margin of the George VI Ice Shelf, where a multi-proxy palaeolimnological approach provided a long-term perspective on ice shelf behaviour. This work was published in Geology in 2005.

iv) Glacial & Climate History of Southernmost South America

I have worked for several years as part of a team which is determining the glacial and environmental history of southernmost South America using a variety of approaches including glacial geomorphology, palaeoecology, and linked ice sheet-climate modelling. Our work in the Magellan Strait region was published in a Special Volume of Geografiska Annaler in 2005, and I am continuing collaborative research in the region.

Research Groups

• Quaternary Environmental Change (QEC)

Research Projects

• Determination of a new Global GPS-derived surface velocity field and its application to the problem of 20th Century sea-level rise, The
• Direct Measurement & Sampling Of Subglacial Lake Ellsworth: Multidisciplinary Investigation Of Life In Extreme Environments & West Antarctic Ice Sheet History
• Glacial and climate history of South Georgia, sub-Antarctic
• Glacial Retreat in Antarctica and Deglaciation of the Earth System (GRADES - QWAD)
• Improved models of West Antarctic glacial isostatic adjustment through new crustal motion data
• Millennial-scale history of the George VI Ice Shelf, Antarctic Peninsula
• Thinning History of The Foundation - Thiel Trough Ice Stream: A Key Control On Deglaciation of The West Antarctic Ice Sheet, Weddell Sea embayment
• Timing and rates of ice sheet thinning in the Ellsworth Mountains, Weddell Sea Embayment: constraints on West Antarctic Ice Sheet dynamics

Related Links

• British Antarctic Survey
• Exploration of Subglacial Lake Ellsworth

Supervises

• Mr Martin Brader
• Mr Christopher Darvill

Selected Publications

Books: sections

• Ross, N. and the Lake Ellsworth Consortium (incl. & Bentley, M.J.) (2011). Subglacial Lake Ellsworth, West Antarctica: its history, recent field campaigns and plans for its exploration. In Antarctic Subglacial Aquatic Environments. Siegert, M.J., Kennicutt, M.C. & Bindschadler, R.A. American Geophysical Union. 192: 221.
• Bentley, M.J., Christofferson, P., Hodgson, D.A., Smith, A.M., Tulaczyk, S. & Le Brocq, A.M. (2011). Subglacial lake sediments and sedimentary processes: potential archives of ice sheet evolution, past environmental change and the presence of life. In Antarctic Subglacial Aquatic Environments. Siegert, M.J., Kennicutt, M.C. & Bindschadler, R.A. American Geophysical Union. 192: 83.
• Hodgson, D.A., and 32 others & (incl. Bentley, M.J.) (2009). Antarctic climate and environmental history in the pre-instrumental period. In Antarctic Climate Change and the Environment. Turner, J. Bindschadler, R.A., Convey, P., Di Prisco, G., Fahrbach, E., Gutt, J., Hodgson, D.A., Mayewski, P.A. & Summerhayes, C.P. Cambridge: Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research.
• Bentley, M.J. (2009). Will the West Antarctic Ice Sheet Collapse?. In Thinking about almost everything: new ideas to light up the mind. Amin, A. & O’Neill, M. London: Profile Books. 92-93.
• Ó Cofaigh, C. & Bentley, M.J. (2007). Late Quaternary Relative Sea Level Changes in High-Latitudes. In Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science. Elias S. Elsevier. 3052-3064.
• Hjort, C., Ingolfsson, O., Bentley, M.J. & Bjorck, S. (2003). Late Pleistocene and Holocene Glacial and Climate History of the Antarctic Peninsula Region: A brief overview of the land and lake record. In Antarctic Peninsula Climate Variability: Antarctic Research Series 79. Domack, E. American Geophysical Union. 95-101.
• Bentley, M.J. & Dugmore, A.J. (1998). Landslides and the rate of glacial trough formation. In Mountain Glaciation: Journal of Quaternary Science - Quaternary Proceedings. Owen, L.A. 6: 11-16.

Journal papers: academic

• Hodgson, D.A. & Bentley, M.J. (2013). Lake highstands in the Pensacola Mountains and Shackleton Range 4300–2250 cal. yr BP: Evidence of a warm climate anomaly in the interior of Antarctica. The Holocene 23(3): 388-397.
• Whitehouse, P.L., Bentley, M.J. & Le Brocq, A.M. (2012). A deglacial model for Antarctica: geological constraints and glaciological modelling as a basis for a new model of Antarctic glacial isostatic adjustment. Quaternary Science Reviews 32(16): 1-24.
• Whitehouse, P.L., Bentley, M.J., Milne, G.A., King, M.A. & Thomas, I.D. (2012). A new glacial isostatic adjustment model for Antarctica: calibrated and tested using observations of relative sea-level change and present-day uplift rates. Geophysical Journal International 190(3): 1464-1482.
• Shepherd, A., Ivins, E. R., Geruo, A., Barletta, V.B., Bentley, M.J., Bettadpur, S., Briggs, K.H., Bromwich, D.H., Forsberg, R., Galin, N., Horwath, M., Jacobs, S., Joughin, I., King, M.A., Lenaerts, J.T.M., Li, J., Ligtenberg, S.R.M., Luckman, A., Luthcke, S.B., McMillan, M., Meister, R., Milne, G., Mouginot, J., Muir, A., Nicolas, J.P., Paden, J., Payne, A.J., Pritchard, H., Rignot, E., Rott, H., Sørensen, L.S., Scambos, T.A., Scheuchl, B., Schrama, E.J.O., Smith, B., Sundal, A.V., van Angelen, J.H., van de Berg, W.J., van den Broeke, M.R., Vaughan, D.G., Velicogna, I., Wahr, J., Whitehouse, P.L., Wingham, D.J., Yi, D., Young, D. & Zwally, H.J. (2012). A Reconciled Estimate of Ice-Sheet Mass Balance. Science 338(6111): 1183-1189.
• Siegert and the Ellsworth Consortium including & Bentley, M.J. (2012). Clean access, measurement and sampling of Antarctic subglacial lake environments. Reviews of Geophysics 50(1).
• Lovell, H., Stokes, C.R., Bentley, M.J. & Benn, D.I. (2012). Evidence for rapid ice flow and proglacial lake evolution around the central Strait of Magellan region, southernmost Patagonia. Journal of Quaternary Science 27(6): 625-638.
• Hodgson, D.A., Bentley, M.J., Schnabel, C. & Cziferszky, A. (2012). Glacial geomorphology and cosmogenic 10Be and 26Al exposure ages in the northern Dufek Massif, Weddell Sea embayment, Antarctica. Antarctic Science 24(04): 377-394.
• King, M.A., Bingham, R.J., Moore, P., Whitehouse, P.L., Bentley, M.J. & Milne, G.A. (2012). Lower satellite-gravimetry estimates of Antarctic sea-level contribution. Nature 491(7425): 586–589.
• Livingstone, S.J., Clark, C.D., Piotrowski, J.A., Tranter, M., Bentley, M.J., Hodson, A., Swift, D.A. & Woodward, J. (2012). Theoretical framework and diagnostic criteria for the identification of palaeo-subglacial lakes. Quaternary Science Reviews 53: 88-110.
• Lovell, H., Stokes, C.R. & Bentley, M.J. (2011). A glacial geomorphological map of the Seno Skyring-Seno Otway-Strait of Magellan region, southernmost Patagonia. Journal of Maps 318-339.
• Watcham, E.P., Bentley, M.J., Hodgson, D.A., Roberts, S.J., Fretwell, P.T., Lloyd, J.M., Larter, R.D., Whitehouse, P.L., Leng, M.J., Monien, P. & Moreton, S.G. (2011). A new relative sea level curve for the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica. Quaternary Science Reviews 30(21-22): 3152.
• Fogwill, C.J., Hein, A., Bentley, M.J. & Sugden, D.E. (2011). Do blue-ice moraines in the Heritage Range show the West Antarctic Ice-sheet survived the last interglacial?. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
• Roberts, S.J., Hodgson, D.A., Sterken, M., Verleyen, E., Vyverman, W., Sabbe, K., Balbo, A., Bentley, M.J. & Whitehouse, P.L. (2011). Geological constraints on glacio-isostatic adjustment models of relative sea-level change during deglaciation of Prince Gustav Channel, Antarctic Peninsula. Quaternary Science Reviews 30(25-26): 3603.
• Johnson, J.S., Bentley, M.J., Roberts, S.J., Binnie, S. & Freeman, SP.H.T. (2011). Holocene deglacial history of the northeast Antarctic Peninsula - a review and new chronological constraints. Quaternary Science Reviews 30(27-28): 3791-3802.
• Ross, N., Siegert, M.J., Woodward, J., Smith, A.M., Corr, H., Bentley, M.J., Hindmarsh, R.C., King, E. & Rivera, A. (2011). Holocene stability of the Amundsen-Weddell ice divide, West Antarctica. Geology 39(10): 935.
• Bentley, M.J., Johnson, J.S., Hodgson, D.A., Dunai, T., Freeman, S.P.H.T. & O'Cofaigh, C. (2011). Rapid deglaciation of Marguerite Bay, western Antarctic Peninsula in the Early Holocene. Quaternary Science Reviews 30(23-24): 3338-3349.
• Le Brocq, A.M., Bentley, M.J., Fogwill, C.J., Hubbard, A.L., Sugden, D.E. & Whitehouse, P.L. (2011). Reconstructing the contribution of the Weddell Sea sector, Antarctica, to sea level rise since the last glacial maximum, using numerical modelling constrained by field evidence. Quaternary Science Reviews 30(19-20): 2422.
• Thomas, I., King, M.A., Bentley, M.J., Whitehouse, P.L., Penna, N.T., Williams, S.D.P., Riva, R.E.M., Lavallee, D.A., Clarke P.J., King, E.C., Hindmarsh, R.C.A. & Koivula, H (2011). Widespread low rates of Antarctic glacial isostatic adjustment revealed by GPS observations. Geophysical Research Letters 38(22).
• Bentley, M.J., Fogwill, C.J., Le Brocq, A.M., Hubbard, A.L., Sugden, D.E., Dunai, T. & Freeman, S.P.H.T. (2010). Deglacial history of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet in the Weddell Sea embayment: Constraints on past ice volume change. Geology 38(5): 411-414.
• Fretwell, P.T., Hodgson, D.A., Watcham, E.P., Bentley, M.J. & Roberts, S.J. (2010). Holocene isostatic uplift of the South Shetland Islands, Antarctic Peninsula, modelled from raised beaches. Quaternary Science Reviews 29: 1880-1893.
• Bentley, M.J. (2010). The Antarctic palaeo record and its role in improving predictions of future Antarctic Ice Sheet change. Journal of Quaternary Science 25(1): 5-18.
• Convey, P., Bindschadler, R., di Prisco, G., Fahrbach, E., Gutt, J., Hodgson, D.A., Mayewski, P.A., Summerhayes, C.P., Turner, J. & The ACCE Consortium (incl Bentley M.J.) (2009). Antarctic Climate Change and the Environment. Antarctic Science 21 (6): 541–563.
• Hodgson, D.A., Roberts, S.J., Bentley, M.J., Smith, J.A., Johnson, J.S., Verleyen, E., Vyverman, W., Hodson, A.J., Leng, M.J., Cziferszky, A., Fox, A.J. & Sanderson, D.C.W. (2009). Exploring former subglacial Hodgson Lake, Antarctica Paper I: site description, geomorphology and limnology. Quaternary Science Reviews 28(23-24): 2295–2309.
• Hodgson, D.A., Roberts, S.J., Bentley, M.J., Carmichael, E.L., Smith, J.A., Verleyen, E., Vyverman, W., Geissler, P., Leng, M.J. & Sanderson, D.C.W. (2009). Exploring former subglacial Hodgson Lake, Antarctica. Paper II: palaeolimnology. Quaternary Science Reviews 28(23-24): 2310-2325.
• Lloyd, J.M., Bentley, M.J., Newton, A.J. & Norðdahl, H. (2009). Lateglacial to Holocene Relative Sea-Level Changes in the Reykjanesfjall Area, Northwest Iceland. Journal of Quaternary Science 24(7): 816-831.
• Bentley, M.J., Hodgson, D.A., Smith, J.A., O Cofaigh, C., Domack, E.W., Larter, R.D., Roberts, S.J., Brachfeld, S., Leventer, A., Hjort, C., Hillenbrand, C-D. & Evans, J. (2009). Mechanisms of Holocene palaeoenvironmental change in the Antarctic Peninsula region. The Holocene 19(1): 51-69.
• Roberts, S.J., Hodgson, D.A., Bentley, M.J., Sanderson, D.C.W., Milne, G., Smith, J.A., Verleyen E., Balbo, A. & Sugden, D.E (2009). New constraints on deglaciation and relative sea-level change on Alexander Island, Antarctic Peninsula from elevated lake deltas. Geomorphology 112: 122-134.
• Hansom, J.D., Evans, D.J.A., Sanderson, D.C.W., Bingham, R.G. & Bentley, M.J. (2008). Constraining the age and formation of stone runs in the Falkland Islands using Optically Stimulated Luminescene. Geomorphology 94: 117-130.
• Johnson, J.S., Bentley, M.J. & Gohl, K. (2008). First exposure ages from the Amundsen Sea Embayment, West Antarctica: The Late Quaternary context for recent thinning of Pine Island, Smith and Pope Glaciers. Geology 36(3): 223-226.
• Wilson, P., Bentley, M.J., Schnabel, C., Clark, R. & Xu, S. (2008). Stone run (block stream) formation in the Falkland Islands over several cold stages, deduced from cosmogenic isotope (10Be and 26Al) surface exposure dating. Journal of Quaternary Science 23(5): 461-473.
• Le Brocq, A.M., Hubbard, A., Bentley, M.J. & Bamer, J.L. (2008). Subglacial topography inferred from ice surface terrain analysis reveals a large un-surveyed basin below sea level in East Antarctica. Geophysical Research Letters 35(L16503): 6.
• Roberts, S.J., Hodgson, D.A., Bentley, M.J., Smith, J.A., Millar, I.L., Olive, V. & Sugden, D.E. (2008). The Holocene history of George VI Ice Shelf, Antarctic Peninsula from clast-provenance analysis of epishelf lake sediments. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 259: 258-283.
• Mackie, E.A.V., Lloyd, J.M., Leng, M.J., Bentley, M.J. & Arrowsmith, C. (2007). Assessment of δ13C and C/N ratios in bulk organic matter as palaeosalinity indicators in Holocene and Lateglacial isolation basin sediments, northwest Scotland. Journal of Quaternary Science 22(6): 579-591.
• Siegert, M.J., Behar, A., Bentley, M.J., Blake, D., Bowden, S., Christoffersen, P., Cockell, C., Corr, H., Cullen, D.C., Edwards, H., Ellery, A., Ellis-Evans, C., Griffiths, G., Hindmarsh, R., Hodgson, D.A., King, E., Lamb, H., Lane, L., Makinson, K., Mowlem, M. Parnell, J., Pearce, D. A., Priscu, J. Rivera, A. Sephton, M.A., Sims, M.R., Smith, A.M., Tranter, M., Wadham, J.L., Wilson, G. & Woodward, J. (2007). Exploration of Ellsworth Subglacial Lake: a concept paper on the development, organisation and execution of an experiment to explore, measure and sample the environment of a West Antarctic subglacial lake. Reviews in Environmental Science and Biotechnology 6(1-3): 161-179.
• Smith, J.A., Bentley, M.J., Hodgson, D.A. & Cook, A.J. (2007). George VI Ice Shelf: past history, present behaviour and potential mechanisms for future collapse. Antarctic Science 19(1): 131-142.
• Bentley, M.J., Evans, D.J.A., Fogwill, C.J., Hansom, J.D., Sugden, D.E. & Kubik, P.W. (2007). Glacial geomorphology and chronology of deglaciation, South Georgia, sub-Antarctic. Quaternary Science Reviews 26(5-6): 644-677.
• Bentley, M.J., Evans, D.J.A., Fogwill, C.J., Hansom, J.D., Sugden, D.E. & Kubik, P.W. (2007). Glacial geomorphology and chronology of deglaciation, South Georgia, sub-Antarctic: Reply to Comment by Van der Putten and Verbruggen. Quaternary Science Reviews 26: 2684-2691.
• Bassett, S.A., Milne, G.A., Bentley, M.J. & Huybrechts, P. (2007). Modelling Antarctic sea-level data to explore the possiblity of a dominant Antarctic contribution to meltwater pulse IA. Quaternary Science Reviews 26(17-18): 2113-2127.
• Smith, J.A., Bentley, M.J., Hodgson, D.A., Roberts, S.J., Verleyen, E., Leng, M.J., Lloyd, J.M., Barrett, M.J. & Sugden, D.E. (2007). Oceanic and atmospheric forcing of early Holocene ice shelf retreat, George VI Ice Shelf, Antarctic Peninsula. Quaternary Science Reviews 26: 500-516.
• Hodgson, D.A., Bentley, M.J., Roberts, S.J., Smith, J.A., Sugden, D.E. & Domack, E.W. (2006). Examining Holocene stability of Antarctic Peninsula ice shelves. EOS, Transactions, American Geophysical Union 87(31): 305-312.
• Sugden, D.E., Bentley, M.J. & Ó Cofaigh, C. (2006). Geological and geomorphological insights into Antarctic ice sheet evolution. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 1-19.
• Bentley, M.J., Fogwill, C.J., Kubik, P.W. & Sugden, D.E. (2006). Geomorphological evidence and cosmogenic 10Be/26A1 exposure ages for the Last Glacial Maximum and deglaciation of the Antarctic Peninsula Ice Sheet. Geological Society of America Bulletin 118(9): 1149-1159.
• Smith, J.A., Hodgson, D.A., Bentley, M.J., Verleyen, E., Leng, M.J. & Roberts, S.J. (2006). Limnology of two Antarctic epishelf lakes and their potential to record periods of ice shelf loss. Journal of Paleolimnology 35: 373-394.
• Bentley, M.J. (2005). Aerial Predation by a South Polar Skua Catharacta Maccormicki on a Snow Petrel Pagodroma nivea in Antarctica. Marine Ornithology 32: 115-116.
• McCulloch, R.D., Fogwill, C.J., Sugden, D.E., Bentley, M.J. & Kubik, P.W. (2005). Chronology of the Last Glaciation in Central Strait of Magellan and Bahía Inútil, Southernmost South America. Geografiska Annaler 87 A(2): 289-312.
• Bentley, M.J., Hodgson, D.A., Sugden, D.E., Roberts, S.J., Smith, J.A., Leng, M.J. & Bryant, C. (2005). Early Holocene retreat of the George VI Ice Shelf, Antarctic Peninsula. Geology 33(3): 173-176.
• McCulloch, R.D., Bentley, M.J., Tipping, R.M. & Clapperton, C.M. (2005). Evidence for Late-Glacial Ice Dammed Lakes in the Central Strait of Magellan and Bahía Inútil, Southernmost South America. Geografiska Annaler 87 A(2): 335-362.
• Bentley, M.J. & McCulloch, R.D. (2005). Impact of Neotectonics on the Record of Glacier and Sea Level Fluctuations, Strait of Magellan, Southern Chile. Geografiska Annaler 87 A(2): 393-402.
• Sugden, D.E., Bentley, M.J., Fogwill, C.J., Hulton, N.R.J., McCulloch, R.D. & Purves, R.S. (2005). Late-Glacial Glacier Events in Southernmost South America: A Blend of 'Northern' and 'Southern' Hemispheric Climatic Signals? Geografiska Annaler 87 A(2): 273-288.
• Bentley, M.J., Hodgson, D.A., Smith, J.A. & Cox, N.J. (2005). Relative sea level curves for the South Shetland Islands and Marguerite Bay, Antarctic Peninsula. Quaternary Science Reviews 24(10-11): 1203-1216.
• Bentley, M.J., Sugden, D.E., Hulton, N.R.J. & McCulloch, R.D. (2005). The Landforms and Pattern of Deglaciation in the Strait of Magellan and Bahía Inútil, Southernmost South America. Geografiska Annaler, Series A: Physical Geography 87(2): 313-333.
• Fogwill, C.J., Bentley, M.J., Sugden, D.E., Kerr, A.R. & Kubik, P.W. (2004). Cosmogenic nuclides Be and Al imply limited Antarctic Ice Sheet thickening and low erosion in the Shackleton Range for > 1 m.y. Geology 32(3): 265-268.
• Moreton, S.G., Rosqvist, G.C., Davies, S.J. & Bentley, M.J. (2004). Radiocarbon reservoir ages from freshwater lakes, South Georgia, sub-Antarctic: Modern analogues from particulate organic matter and surface sediments. Radiocarbon 46(2): 621-626.
• Hulton, N.R.J., Purves, R.S., McCulloch, R.D., Sugden, D. & Bentley, M.J. (2002). The Last Glacial Maximum and deglaciation in southern South America. Quaternary Science Reviews 21(1-3): 233-241.
• Hjort, C., Bentley, M.J. & Ingolfsson, O. (2001). Holocene and pre-Holocene temporary disappearance of the George VI Ice Shelf, Antarctic Peninsula. Antarctic Science 13(3): 296-301.
• McCulloch, R.D., Bentley, M.J., Purves, R.S., Sugden, D.E. & Clapperton, C.M. (2000). Climatic interferences form glacial and palaeocological evidence at the last glacial termination, Southern South America. Journal of Quaternary Science 15: 409-417.
• Bentley, M.J. & Anderson, J.B. (1999). Glacial and marine geological evidence for the ice sheet configuration in the Weddell Sea-Antarctic Peninsula Region during the Last Glacial Maximum. Antarctic Science 10(3): 307-323.
• Bentley, M.J. (1999). Volume of Antarctic ice at the Last Glacial Maximum, and its impact on global sea level change. Quaternary Science Reviews 18(14): 1569-1595.
• McCulloch, R.D. & Bentley, M.J. (1998). Late glacial ice advance in the Strait of Magellan, southern Chile. Quaternary Science Reviews 17(8): 775-787.
• Bentley, M.J. (1997). Relative and radiocarbon chronology of adjacent former outlet glaciers in the Chilean Lake District. Journal of Quaternary Science 12: 25-33.
• Bentley, M.J. (1996). The role of lakes in moraine formation, Chilean Lake District. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 21: 493-507.

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